With the cancellation of the Phoenix Project, the people involved were on the horns of a dilemma. They had spent the better part of almost 20 years developing mind control and stealth technologies that Congress didn't want anyone to use. Undeterred, the scientists went to the one organization they knew would want to engage in further research and development of the devices the Phoenix Project had produced: the military. Naturally, the military was very excited about the idea of a weapons system that would allow them to defeat an enemy without ever firing a shot. They agreed to continue the project, setting up the Phoenix people in a secluded area where proper experimentation could be conducted. The military also agreed to provide the equipment and personnel the project required in order to operate. One of the primary items on the equipment list given to the military was a Sage Radar system. It had been discovered that radio signals in the 425 to 450 Megahertz range were required to get 'inside' the human consciousness to allow for mind control attempts. The Sage Radar systems ran at these frequencies, and could be converted into a huge radiosonde easily. Better yet, the Sage Radar system was currently obsolete, thus the scientists would be able to use one with no detriment to national security. Montauk Air Force Base, located within the confines of Fort Hero on Montauk Point, Long Island, New York, was perfect for the needs of the Phoenix Project scientists. It was fairly isolated, currently mothballed and was equipped with a Sage Radar system that could be converted to a radiosonde with ease. Montauk Air Force Base was reopened in late 1971 (although it was still listed as a decommissioned base by the military), allowing Phoenix II to get underway. Along with many of the original Phoenix Project scientists, there were members of the military, government workers and civilian personnel brought in from various corporations. A number of the military servicemen present were Air Force radar technicians who had worked with the Sage Radar system all through the 60's. They reported that the general mood of the base had changed according to the frequency and pulse duration of the radar system. This seemingly trivial piece of information was considered very important to the Phoenix people, who quickly determined that by changing the rate and width of the radar pulse, they could superficially alter the way people thought and felt. This discovery prompted a number of experiments to determine what frequencies prompted what responses. A number of people were used in these experiments, although the prime test subject was a man by the name of Duncan Cameron (more about him later). These test subjects were placed inside of a small room on the base and the Sage Radar system was focused on that room, bathing it with massive amounts of micro and radio waves. By altering the frequency and pulse of the radar set, they could make a person laugh, cry, angry or sleepy. As a side effect, it was found the the general mood of the whole base would change to follow the signal output of the Sage Radar. Now that it had been proved the Sage Radar could affect emotional states, the next step was to try and control a person's thoughts. Tests were conducted in the which the pulse rate and amplitude of the Radar system were changed to match various biological functions of the body. Doing so allowed the scientists to actually control what a person thought and did. It should be pointed out that bathing a person in massive amounts of microwave radiation and intense radio waves is not healthy. Many test subjects were literally baked by radio waves causing serious internal damage to the lungs and brain. With further tests it was determined that this damage was caused by "burning radiation". "Non-burning radiation" was emitted from the opposite side of the Sage Radar reflector. So, the scientists decided to reverse the radar antenna around 180 degrees, broadcasting burning radiation up into the sky and using the non-burning radiation to conduct their tests. Much to their delight, it was discovered that non-burning radiation could alter moods and thoughts as well, and didn't damage the subject of the tests! In 1973, the experimental process had reached a new step. The scientists wanted to experiment with large groups of people, changing their thoughts and moods en masse and monitoring the results. Units of the U.S. Army were invited to the base for R&R, becoming the unwitting targets of mood-altering experiments. Similar experiments were also conducted on people living nearby on Long Island, as well as New Jersey, New York and Connecticut. The aim of these tests was very simple; to build a database of pulse settings and the effects they caused With time, the scientists were able to construct a control panel that allowed them to broadcast preset signals, thus allowing for consistent mind control effects. Tests allowed the scientists to create a wide variety of effects, depending on the settings fed into the transmitter. Programs were written that would allow the researchers to do more than simply create mood swings. They found that they could increase the crime rate, incite violence and cause mass panic among animals. They even developed programs that would disable vehicles by burning out all of its electrical functions. At this point, the Montauk people had developed a reliable method for controlling the thoughts of others.

With the cancellation of the Phoenix Project, the people involved were on the horns of a dilemma. They had spent the better part of almost 20 years developing mind control and stealth technologies that Congress didn't want anyone to use. Undeterred, the scientists went to the one organization they knew would want to engage in further research and development of the devices the Phoenix Project had produced: the military. Naturally, the military was very excited about the idea of a weapons system that would allow them to defeat an enemy without ever firing a shot. They agreed to continue the project, setting up the Phoenix people in a secluded area where proper experimentation could be conducted. The military also agreed to provide the equipment and personnel the project required in order to operate.

One of the primary items on the equipment list given to the military was a Sage Radar system.

It had been discovered that radio signals in the 425 to 450 Megahertz range were required to get 'inside' the human consciousness to allow for mind control attempts. The Sage Radar systems ran at these frequencies, and could be converted into a huge radiosonde easily.

Better yet, the Sage Radar system was currently obsolete, thus the scientists would be able to use one with no detriment to national security.

Montauk Air Force Base, located within the confines of Fort Hero on Montauk Point, Long Island, New York, was perfect for the needs of the Phoenix Project scientists. It was fairly isolated, currently mothballed and was equipped with a Sage Radar system that could be converted to a radiosonde with ease.

Montauk Air Force Base was reopened in late 1971 (although it was still listed as a decommissioned base by the military), allowing Phoenix II to get underway. Along with many of the original Phoenix Project scientists, there were members of the military, government workers and civilian personnel brought in from various corporations.

A number of the military servicemen present were Air Force radar technicians who had worked with the Sage Radar system all through the 60's.

They reported that the general mood of the base had changed according to the frequency and pulse duration of the radar system. This seemingly trivial piece of information was considered very important to the Phoenix people, who quickly determined that by changing the rate and width of the radar pulse, they could superficially alter the way people thought and felt.

This discovery prompted a number of experiments to determine what frequencies prompted what responses. A number of people were used in these experiments, although the prime test subject was a man by the name of Duncan Cameron (more about him later). These test subjects were placed inside of a small room on the base and the Sage Radar system was focused on that room, bathing it with massive amounts of micro and radio waves.

By altering the frequency and pulse of the radar set, they could make a person laugh, cry, angry or sleepy. As a side effect, it was found the the general mood of the whole base would change to follow the signal output of the Sage Radar.

Now that it had been proved the Sage Radar could affect emotional states, the next step was to try and control a person's thoughts. Tests were conducted in the which the pulse rate and amplitude of the Radar system were changed to match various biological functions of the body. Doing so allowed the scientists to actually control what a person thought and did.

It should be pointed out that bathing a person in massive amounts of microwave radiation and intense radio waves is not healthy. Many test subjects were literally baked by radio waves causing serious internal damage to the lungs and brain. With further tests it was determined that this damage was caused by "burning radiation". "Non-burning radiation" was emitted from the opposite side of the Sage Radar reflector. So, the scientists decided to reverse the radar antenna around 180 degrees, broadcasting burning radiation up into the sky and using the non-burning radiation to conduct their tests. Much to their delight, it was discovered that non-burning radiation could alter moods and thoughts as well, and didn't damage the subject of the tests!

In 1973, the experimental process had reached a new step. The scientists wanted to experiment with large groups of people, changing their thoughts and moods en masse and monitoring the results.

Units of the U.S. Army were invited to the base for R&R, becoming the unwitting targets of mood-altering experiments. Similar experiments were also conducted on people living nearby on Long Island, as well as New Jersey, New York and Connecticut. The aim of these tests was very simple; to build a database of pulse settings and the effects they caused With time, the scientists were able to construct a control panel that allowed them to broadcast preset signals, thus allowing for consistent mind control effects.

Tests allowed the scientists to create a wide variety of effects, depending on the settings fed into the transmitter. Programs were written that would allow the researchers to do more than simply create mood swings. They found that they could increase the crime rate, incite violence and cause mass panic among animals. They even developed programs that would disable vehicles by burning out all of its electrical functions.

At this point, the Montauk people had developed a reliable method for controlling the thoughts of others. Now, they wanted to make a device that would allow for precise manipulation of a target.

The scope of the Montauk Project was about to expand beyond anyone's wildest dreams…

According to the writer of the The Montauk Project , the ITT World-Wide Communications corporation (which is owned by the Krupp family - see 'Setting Up Phoenix II' above) constructed a mind-reading device. The device translated the electromagnetic field, or "aura", around the body into a visible format. The primary component of this device was a Cray 1 supercomputer that turned the data into something a person could understand.

The technology used to create this is device is a mystery. According to the book, some of the basic technical information was provided by aliens. These aliens were the Sirians, from the star system of Sirius. Exactly why these aliens provided the technology is not explained.

Over at the Montauk Project, the research people realized that this mind-reading device could could easily be converted into a mind control device. They hooked the device up to a series of computers, electrical coils and the Sage Radar system, creating a powerful transmitter that could be used lessen the risks to humans undergoing invisibility and time travel experiments. This new device was called the "Montauk Chair" and came online about 1974. Linked to a Cray 1 and an IBM 360 computer, the researchers would sit a psychically active person (such as Duncan Cameron) in the Montauk Chair and have them try and transmit their thoughts to a similar set up back at the ITT corporation (located in Southampton, Long Island).

After about a year of experimentation and research (in which many problems relating to transmitter feedback had to be overcome) the researchers at the Montauk Project now had a device capable of projecting a person's thoughts to a remote location. Unfortunately, there was now a new problem to overcome: "time glitches".

The time glitches tended to interfere and break up the thought transmissions between Montauk and Southampton. They were caused by psychics projecting a reality that different from 'our' reality. This would cause the flow of time to disrupted and the link between the two chairs would be cut.

In order to correct these problems dealing with interruptions in the flow of time, the Montauk researchers redesigned and rebuilt the chair, closely following the original prototype and the methods used to build it (this is the device created by the Sirians, remember).

This second generation Montauk Chair used multiple Delta T or Delta Time coils to create the desired energy fields. It was also shielded from any outside interference, thanks to the redesigned coils that powered the chair and created the electromagnetic fields. After about of alignments and adjustments the new chair was brought on-line in early 1976.

What was to follow was to be absolutely amazing…

By this point, all of the experiments and tests involving the Montauk Chair used Duncan Cameron.

Duncan was a powerful psychic used in many phases of the Montauk experiments. His "true history" (as well as a possible Hero System character sheet) is given below. The main reason why he was used so often in the experiments dealing with the chair was due to some for of 'special training' he had undergone (the books give the CIA or the NSA as possible candidates) that allowed him to each an 'altered form of consciousness'.

What this means is that his conscious mind would be suppressed and a more primitive mind would be allowed become active. This primitive mind was highly suggestible, very controllable and tended to act by focusing all of its power on a subject, allowing much greater displays of power than if the conscious mind had acted.

After about a year of tests, the Montauk Chair was shown to be working flawlessly. Now, instead of transmitting thoughts, the researchers wanted to try something new: creating solid objects. The idea was for Duncan to visualize an object and provided there was sufficient power coming from the transmitter, materialize it somewhere on the base.

This process was not exact, however, as some objects remained intangible and others faded as soon as the transmitter was turned off. But, if given sufficient power, Duncan could create permanent objects. The size and type of object seemed only to be limited by his imagination, and it is said he materialized entire buildings during the course of these experiments.

Following the success of the object creation experiments, the researchers at Montauk began to step up their tests by looking into manipulating the human mind directly. The first such experiments involved what was called "The Seeing Eye". This was where Duncan was given a lock of hair (or other object) and concentrated on the person that object had come from. He could then see and hear everything that person could see and hear, no matter where that person was.

After that, the tests were taken one step further. Now, instead of simply looking though the eyes and ears of another, Duncan tried to actually influence what the person was thinking and doing. By pushing out with his thoughts, Duncan could take over someone else's mind, making them do what he (Duncan) wanted. People could be virtually 'programmed' to do almost anything. Further experimentation showed that large groups of both people and animals could be affected, making them behave in a variety of bizarre ways.

With time, it was discovered that more than a person's mind could be controlled. Electrical devices could be made to malfunction, short out or otherwise rendered useless. Telekinetic effects were discovered, where Duncan was able to move objects, shatter windows and wreck entire rooms.

Even with all of the amazing discoveries that the Montauk researches had uncovered, the team still wasn't done.

As of 1979, the Montauk Project was poised to do more than manipulate people's minds, they were on the verge of altering the flow of time itself.

Experiments with thought projection in early 1979 revealed an interesting side effect.

Many times Duncan's thoughts would be projected by the transmitter, but the signal would suddenly vanish. At first this was thought to be a malfunction, until it was noticed that many of the things Duncan was attempting to project didn't appear (or occur) till many hours later (or perhaps, before). Apparently, Duncan was capable of altering the flow of time (or operating outside of it).

Further research showed that the set up being used for the experiments and tests didn't have sufficient power to properly bend and shift time. To achieve full mastery over the flow of time, the researchers installed what is referred to as the "Orion Delta T (for time) antenna". It was rumored that the antenna was based on designs given to the Project by the aliens from the constellation of Orion (the exact star system is unknown). As with the Sirians, it is unknown exactly why the Orions gave the Montauk Project the plans, but it is presumed they had some private agenda for doing so.

The Orion Delta T antenna was placed in a huge underground chamber excavated beneath Montauk AFB. The antenna itself was about 100 to 150 feet tall, and the chamber was nearly 300 feet underground. The Montauk Chair was then placed above this antenna and below the transmitter used to broadcast projected signals. This placed the chair in a null field that removed all interference from and of the fields generated by the transmitter and other devices.

After installing the new antenna (which took from 1979 to 1980) and calibrating Duncan to the new equipment, it was found that Duncan had almost total control over the flow of time. He could cause portals to open to almost any time by concentrating on a specific date.

These portals looked like large spirals or vortexes. Inside the portal was a circular tunnel with light at the far end. One could look through a portal to see a smaller portal or window on the other end. Walking through the tunnel would place a person in whatever time the tunnel was connected to. The tunnels were not always straight, however, and curved around as one made their way to the exit. Sometimes power outages would cause tunnels to vanish, stranding anyone inside. They would be lost somewhere in the time stream with virtually no way to return.

There were a few problems with the initial time portals however. The portals tended to drift and people sent thought weren't always able to find the portal for the return trip. It took from 1980 to 1981 to calibrate the equipment and train Duncan to keep a portal stable. The also worked on spatial as well as temporal stabilization, trying to create portals in both specific times as well as places.

When the the researchers were able to successfully stabilize and lock down the time portals Duncan created, the nature of the Montauk Project changed yet again. Almost all of the extraneous personnel were dismissed. The military left, and a new team of people were brought in to run the base. A new technical crew was brought in as well, all that was know about them was that they were the "Secret Crew". The project was rechristened "Phoenix III" and from 1981 to 1983 the objective of the project was to explore time itself.

In order to explore the worlds beyond the time tunnels, the Montauk researchers kidnapped large numbers of the homeless as guinea pigs. They would spend some time (about a week) getting them ready for the trip and then send them though. If they returned, they were expected to make a full report of what they saw. Unfortunately many didn't.

This was why the project used the homeless, since they knew no one would notice if these sorts of people went missing.

The project also used a large number of children in these experiments. These children were exclusively male, between the ages of 10 and 16, tall, blond, blue eyed and fair-skinned. Most (if not all) fit the idea of the Aryan stereotype. The exact purpose of these children is unknown, although all of them were initially sent to the year 6037 AD to investigate a ruined city. There, they had to examine the statue of a horse and report back on what they saw. After that, the children were sent of on others missions, but it is unknown if any ever returned. It was later discovered that the project was connected with some sort of NeoNazi organization and that the children were recruited to serve this group.

It is also reported that somewhere between 3000 and 10,000 people were placed between 200 and 300 years into the future. As with the children, the exact purpose of this operation is unknown.

Finally, a lot of time was spent viewing events from both the First and Second World War. Pictures were taken and events were monitored.

It is unknown if the Project personnel interfered or tried to alter specific events during these two war.

With the success of the time portal projects, the Montauk researchers began to look off-planet for the next phase of Phoenix III.

The idea was to create a portal between Earth and Mars. Specifically between Earth and the Martian Pyramids that lay near the great "Face on Mars" in the Cydonia region of Mars (image left). It is said that this region of Mars shows evidence of a large number of artificial structures, including pyramids, the great 'Face', temples, a waterfront and even a city (click image right).

It was the desire of the Montauk people to explore these structures and determine who (or what) had made them.

As a side note, the book The Montauk Project includes some information that alleges that there is or was a secret space program run by the US and the Soviet Union that established colonies on both the Moon and Mars. Supposedly, men landed on Mars sometime in 1962. It is interesting that although the book mentions this information, the author backs off from actually claiming any of this is 'real'.

The author does imply, however, that people were living on the surface of Mars during the duration of the time and space portal experiments.

In order to fully explore the pyramids of Mars, the project needed to get inside the structures. This was accomplished by having Duncan create a time portal inside the pyramid and then move it around until open passageways were found. At this point 'away teams' could enter the portal and walk from Montauk Point to areas under the Martian surface. Although little is know about what was found within this immense pyramid structure, a few tantalizing hints are offered.

Duncan Cameron himself was a member of at least one of the away teams, and described seeing something he calls "The Solar System Defense" which needed to be disabled before any further research could be done. According to the author, portions of the movie Total Recall are based on events that occurred within the Montauk Project, especially the scenes dealing with the Martian pyramid and the recall chair. Finally, evidence of intelligent life on Mars was found, but the researchers had to create time portals that stretched over 125,000 years into the past to discover it.

The Montauk Project finally came to end on August 12, 1983.

On this date, a time portal was opened that connected Montauk Base with the USS Eldridge of 40 years ago, during the original Philadelphia Experiment. While this portal was being opened and maintained, several members of the project, who had become increasingly uncomfortable with the aims and designs of the project heads (and with the effect that warping time and space might have on the world around them) decided to bring the project to a crashing halt.

A code phrase was whispered to Duncan, at which point he released a monster from his subconscious. This creature, or 'Beast from the Id' materialized as a large hairy monster (below image) that smashed its way about the base, destroying and eating everything it could find. Meanwhile, one of the project members began cutting apart cables and conduits in an attempt to sever the power to the base transmitters and shut down the project.

After smashing up and cutting apart enough equipment, the transmitter powered down and the Beast mercifully faded away.

After the disaster of August 12, 1983, the Montauk Project shut down.

The base was emptied of people and equipment and all extraneous personnel were brainwashed into forgetting everything that had happened there. Almost a year later, in May or June of 1984, a unit of 'Black Berets' (possible an elite unit of Marines) entered the base with orders to shoot anything and everything that moved. They purged the base for a second team, which removed any equipment deemed to sensitive to abandon.

After that, the underground chambers were sealed off. According to the author, one of the rooms cleared out contained hundreds of human skeletons.

Finally, at the end of 1984 cement was poured into many of the elevator shafts and underground areas of Montauk Base, sealing off all of the areas used for the most extreme of the space-time experiments.

Afterwards, the gates to Montauk AFB were locked and the base was abandoned for a second and final time.

Eventually, Fort Hero (and Montauk Base) was donated to the state of New York as a park.

illuminati leaks

info on the free and accepted masons

current nwo plans

the latest on the Rothschild family dealings

current events of the CFR

the last move of the Trilateral Commission

videos of nwo protest

nwo canceled plans

tasks abandoned for nwo due to public outcry

the decline of Royal Society influence

Rockefeller fears - nwo not possible to acheive

consideration for the revocation of Jade Helm and Agenda 21

Non-consensual human experimentation in the areas of mind control, neuro-experimentation, behavior modification, neuropsychology, Artificial Intelligence, Cybernetics, Bio-Communications, Electronic Brain Link technologies, electronic surveillance/assault with radiation/Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs), Remote Neural Monitoring (RNM), Brain Entrainment, and Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) technologies is unequivocally ongoing today in the United States of America, as also in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, countries in Europe, Asia, South Africa and possibly also other countries in Africa, under Globalist networks of Intelligence and Military kinds, where non-consensual human experimentation are also ongoing: biological, chemical, and medical, such as the dissemination via aerosols/”chem trails” of weaponized biological and chemical substances are being studied in warfare, and “unwitting” medical research participation in studies or clinical trials, neuro-control technologies mentioned, including as relevant, such technologies as nanotechnology delivered via aerosol, vaccines, or food supplements, and RFID/biometric surveillance technologies such as microchips, neurostimulators, and Bio MEMs - is certainly not covered by mainstream media is the reason for lack of public outcry, while the existience of this activity has been proved to exist, prooved by non-edited photographs of project documentation files gained by hackers extraction from database. Try some Google (image) seaches, and then download moblie application verifies if a photograph was edited or if a photograph was not edited gave you proof of what was written here is true.-Mark R. Rowe

Click here to learn more about the Illuminati.

Non-consensual human experimentation in the areas of mind control, neuro-experimentation, behavior modification, neuropsychology, Artificial Intelligence, Cybernetics, Bio-Communications, Electronic Brain Link technologies, electronic surveillance/assault with radiation/Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs), Remote Neural Monitoring (RNM), Brain Entrainment, and Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) technologies is unequivocally ongoing today in the United States of America, as also in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, countries in Europe, Asia, South Africa and possibly also other countries in Africa, under Globalist networks of Intelligence and Military kinds, where non-consensual human experimentation are also ongoing: biological, chemical, and medical, such as the dissemination via aerosols/”chem trails” of weaponized biological and chemical substances are being studied in warfare, and “unwitting” medical research participation in studies or clinical trials, neuro-control technologies mentioned, including as relevant, such technologies as nanotechnology delivered via aerosol, vaccines, or food supplements, and RFID/biometric surveillance technologies such as microchips, neurostimulators, and Bio MEMs - is certainly not covered by mainstream media is the reason for lack of public outcry, while the existience of this activity has been proved to exist, prooved by non-edited photographs of project documentation files gained by hackers extraction from database.  Try some Google (image) seaches, and then download moblie application verifies if a photograph was edited or if a photograph was not edited gave you proof of what was written here is true.

-Mark R. Rowe

Non,consensual,human,experimentation,in,the,areas,of,mind,control,neuro,experimentation,behavior,modification,neuropsychology,Artificial,Intelligence,Cybernetics,Bio,Communications,Electronic,Brain,Link,technologies,electronic,surveillance,assault,with,radiation,Directed,Energy,Weapons,DEWs

CHAPTER 1 NEURAL SCIENCE Mark Ralph Rowe San Diego, California (GoldenHills) 92102 11/17/2013

* Free $1000.00 Starbucks Gold Card with unlimited free coffee refills
* Redeem coupon STARBUX323 code visit http://starbucks.com
To sign up your free Starbucks account.

10010 Coffee Blvd. Seattle, WA 78660
2015 Starbucks Corp.

CHAPTER 1 NEURAL SCIENCE 

Mark Ralph Rowe

San Diego, California (Golden Hills) 92102

11/17/2013

1.1

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

JACK A. GREBB, M.D.

The neurosciences are fundamentally important to the clinical specialties of psychiatry,  neurology, and neurosurgery because they explore the biology of neuronal tissues.  Two sub-specialty areas within psychiatry--neuropsychiatry and biological psychiatry--have particularly endeavored to integrate neuroscientific information with clinical psychiatry.  It is unfortunate in some respects that these subspecialty concepts have evolved, since an appreciation for the basic neurosciences should infuse the clinical approaches of all professionals working with the mentally ill.

MISLEADING DICHOTOMIES  There is a common tendency to divide and distinguish phenomena, even in the absence of adequate data.  This tendency has had unfortunate consequences for the mentally ill.  In recent history, people inflicted with diseases that were not understood (e.g., tuberculosis, cancer) have been ostracized from society.  Once the conditions were understood as medical diseases, these outcasts entered the relative comfort of a medical model for their afflictions.  Patients with  mental illnesses are currently caught in a transitional phase in this process.  The general  acceptance of mental illness as a disease of the brain is currently hindered by at least five misleading dichotomies.

Neurology vs. psychiatry  The clinical distinction between neurology and psychiatry is increasingly appreciated as awkward and artificial  (Chapter 2).  Neurology has traditionally focused on organic disorders with identifiable pathology, whereas psychiatry has focused on functional disorders without observable pathology.  Regardless of intentions, the implication in that neurological disorders are real diseases, whereas psychiatric disorders are not.  Functional, in this context, actually means that the organic pathophysiological basis has not been discovered yet--not that one does not exist.  A better term for functional might be idiopathic.

The mind-brain dichotomy  The mind and the brain share the same organ.  Mind is what is called the personal experience of the brain or perhaps the experienced of change in the brain.  How can the complexity of the mind be explained by the brain?  First, the brain is undoubtedly more complex than is currently known; second perhaps minds are not as complex as generally thought.

Nature vs. nurture  There is no contest: nature is nurtured, and nurture has a nature.  Nature and nurture are mutually interacting systems.  It has been shown clearly that the environment (i.e., nurture) can affect biology at very basic molecular levels (e.g. branching of dendrites, activity of enzymes).  Nurture itself can be seen as a reciprocal biological event.  Human beings affect one another, and there exist biological changes paralleled to the subjective experiences.

Structure vs. function  All mental activities (behavior, thoughts, feelings) are paired with biological events in the brain.  The techniques of basic neuroscience can potentially identify the structural correlates of mental activity at the level of genes and other molecules.  The division between structure and function rest solely on which biological level is arbitrarily chosen as a cutoff point.  A more accurate approach is to accept that each biological disorder, including mental illness, has a structural pathology at some level or assortment of levels, and that this structural abnormality is reflected as a disorder of function or regulation.

Biology vs. psychology  This dichotomy is both a derivative of the mind-brain issue and an unfortunate offshoot of debates within the field of psychiatry.  Biology, psychology, empirical observations.  The level and descriptive lexicon used to describe behavioral phenomena can be varied.  Ina particular situation, one model might be more enlightening or clinically appropriated than another. 

OVERVIEW OF NEURAL SCIENCES

The aim of this 15-section neural sciences chapter is to provide a brief introduction to the basic science principles that underlie that many biological theories, organic therapies, and research findings discussed in the chapters on specific clinical disorders.  Therefore, the sections within this chapter do not systematically review the relationships between their topics and relevant clinical disorders.  Therefore, the sections within this chapter do not systematically review the relationships between their topics and relevant clinical disorders.  Rather, this chapter can either be read as an introduction to basic biological principles or used as a reference when reading about biological material in subsequent chapters.

NEUROANATOMY  Classical neuroanatomy (Section 1.2) describes regions and connections in the brain based primarily on observations from gross neuroanatomy.  Functional neuroanatomy (Section 1.3) is based more on data from studies defining the distribution of specific molecules (e.g., neurotransmitters) and from studies using advanced histochemical techniques that have defined more clearly the projection patterns of neuronal populations.  Functional neuroanatomy is possibly more relevant to psychiatric disorders than is classical neuroanatomy are slowly eclipsing some of the previous tenets of classical neuroanatomy.

Neurons  The neuron, or nerve cell, is the basic functional unit of the nervous system.  Neurons vary widely in terms of size, shape, number f synapses, and chemical constituents.  The cell body, also called the some or perikaryon, typically gives rise to axons and dendrites.  The axon arises from the cell body or the base of one of the main dendrites.  The initial axon segment, the axon hillock, actually is the site of initiation for the action potential in many neurons.  Enlargements at the ends of axons are called axon terminals, or boutons, and

are the sites of presynaptic neurotransmitter release.  Within the axon terminals are the synaptic vesicles, which contain neurotransmitter substances.  There are different types of synaptic vesicles, varying in sized, shape and other visual characteristics.  THese different types often contain different neurotransmitters, and conceivably these vesicles respond differentially to stimulation of the axon terminal.  There may be one or many dendrites (or none at all) emerging from the cell body.  Dendrites are usually profusely branched, and most are studded with small spikes, the dendritic spines, which along with somata and dendritic shafts, are the sites of synaptic connections.

Gila  Glia, glial cells, or neuroglia are synonymous terms for a class of nonneuronal cells in the nervous system (CNS)--astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependyma, and microglia--and two types in the peripheral nervous system--Schwann and satellite cells.  THe astrocytes provide structural support to neurons and are the major cell type in glial scar tissue in the CNS.  The oligodendrocytes are the myelin-forming cells of the CNS and also may perform a nurturing role for neurons.  Both astrocytes and oligodendrocytes are involved in phagocytosis. of the spinal cord.  The surfaces of ependymal cells have a more direct and critical role in neuronal activity than is currently believed.

Blood-brain barrier  An important feature of the brain to which glial cells contribute is the blood-brain barrier, a semipermeable barrier between the blood vessels and brain that prevents many chemical compounds from passing between brain and blood.  The ability of a molecule to cross the blood-brain barrier is based on its molecular size, electric charge, solubility, and the presence of specific transport systems for the compound.  The endothelial cells of brain capillaries differ from other capillaries because they are virtually continuous with each other and lack the pinocytotic vesicles that have been implicated in transport of substances from one side of the membrane to the other.  The biogenic amine neurotransmitters (e.g., clinical trials of a new drug)

Membranes  All cells, including neurons and glia, are enclosed in cell membranes that function as a complex regulatory site.  The membrane is a sea of phospholipids, organized as a bilayer either the hydrophobic ends of the lipid molecules pointing toward the middle of the membrane.  Within this lipid bilayer are various types of protein molecules.  Some proteins are embedded in the external or internal surfaces of the membrane.  Neurotransmitter receptors (Section 1.4), for example, are proteins that are located partially on the outside surface of the membrane and transmit a message to another protein (e.g., and enzyme [Section 1.6]) that is located on the inside surface of the membrane.  Other proteins, such as ion channels (Section 1.7), extend the entire width of the membrane.

Cerebrospinal fluid  The CNS ventricular system is filled with CSF, produced by the cerebral plexi in the cerebral ventricles.  CSF leaves the ventricular system via the median aperture of Magendie and the two lateral apertures of Luschka and is then absorbed into the venous system through the drainage resulting in increased CSF pressure.  THis can often be seen in computed tomographic (CT) scans by the presence of dilated ventricles. 

     The CSF has a volume of approximately 125 ml in the normal adult, and approximately 500 ml are made each day.  The total volume of CSP, therefore, is replaced approximately four time each day.  The use of lumbar punctures to obtain CSF is routine neurological practice.  The CSF also is a source of research information in psychiatry because it reflects neurochemical activity in the brain.  However, metabolites from the spinal cord may significantly contribute to the chemical content of CSF, and neurotransmitter metabolites from deep brain structures may not reach the CSF efficiently.  Other consideration when evaluation research data based on CSF measurements are the possibilities of a vertical gradient in the concentration of the chemical within CSF and also of rhythmic variations of production of the chemical with time (e.g., diurnal variation).

NEUROTRANSMISSION  Neurotransmission can occur either through chemical or electrical synapses.  The role of electrical synapses, also called gap junctions, in the CNS is poorly understood.  IN contrast, a great deal is known about chemical synapses.  Chemical neurotransmission classically involves a presynaptic neuron that releases a neurotransmitter that diffuses across a synaptic cleft, where it binds to a specific receptor that initiates a series of molecular events in the postsynaptic neuron.  THe three major classes of chemical postsynaptic neuron.  The three major classes of chemical neuronmessengers are biogenic amines (also called monopeptides (Section 1.4), amino acids (Section 1.4), and neuronpeptides (Section 1.5).  The intraneuronal release and following receptor activation have recently been defined (Section 1.6).

Synapses  The most conventional types of chemical synapses are the axo-dendritic and axo-somatic synapses, in which the axon of the presynaptic neuron synapses, with a dendrite of the cell body, respectively, of the postsynaptic neuron.  Such synapses may be inhibitory, excitator, or modulatory.  IN axo-axonic synapses, the presynaptic axon synapses with the axon hillock or axon terminal of the postsynaptic neuron.  Such synapses may be inhibitory, excitatory, or modulatory.  In axon-axonic synapses, the presynaptic axon synapses with the axon hillock or axon terminal of the postsynaptic neuron.  It is thought that their synapses are usually inhibitory.  Two more recently discovered synapses are dendrodendritic and dendro-axonic.  Both of these synaptic types are and do not elicit postsynaptic action potentials.  One final complication of synapses is that nonsynaptic neurons probably exist as well.  These are neurons with axon terminals that CSF and therefore do not have synapses with specific neurons and may function in a paracrine fashion.

Receptors  Receptors (Section 1.4) are proteins in the neuronal membrane that are, in part, exposed to the extracellular fluid and specifically recognized neuromessengers.  To be classified as a receptor, the binding to this protein should be saturable, specific, and reversible.  Saturable means that in experimental preparations it can be demonstrated that there is a finite number of the receptors present.  Specific means that the receptor binds, relatively speaking, only the alleged neurotransmitter fro that receptor. Binding to a functionally meaningful receptor os reversible, which means that the receptor must first bind, then release, the neurotransmitter so that the receptor subsequently can respond to another message.  The term putative receptor is often used to describe a binding site that has not yet been definitively shown to have all the properties required of a receptor.

     Receptors can be either postsynaptic or presynaptic.  In an axo-dendritic synapse, for example, the receptors on the receiving dendrite are postsynaptic.  Receptors on the axon itself are presynaptic.  They are called either presynptic autoreceptors if they bind the neurontransmitter released by their patent neuron or presynaptic heteroreceptors if they hind a neurotransmitter released by some other neuron.

    The concepts of supersensitivity and subsensititviy are applied to receptors.  When demonstrated appropriately, these properties signify that a specific postsynaptic neuron responds in either an augmented or attenuated fashion to a constant amount of neurotransmitter.  Such regulation of synaptic response could come from three receptor related changes.  First,the number of receptors available for neurotransmitter binding could increase or decrease.  Second, the binding affinity of the receptor for the neurontransmitter molecule could increase or decre ase.  Third, the molecular mechanism by which the receptor translates its message into the neuron could be more or less efficient.

The,Bad,Science,Mark,R.,Rowe,San,Diego,California,92102,Mark,Rowe,David,Rowe,Nina,Dougherty,Clifford,Dougherty,Anita,Ferguson,Virginia,Ferguson,William,Jones,Frederick,Jones,Charles,Rowe,Jacqueline,Kennedy,Esther,Rowe,Ralph,Rowe,Judy,Garland,Ethel,Kennedy,Robert,John,Kennedy,international,affairs,world,economic,domination,and,control,policy,makers,decisions,for,material,gain,persuasion,of,the,masses,Did,you,know,that,the,NSA,can,track,the,location,of,your,phone,even,when,it,is,turned,off,and,the,batteries,have,been,removed,This,admission,went,largely,unnoticed,in,a,Washington,Post,report,entitled,NSA,growth,fueled,by,need,to,target,terrorists,In,the,article,writer,Dana,Priest,details,how,teams,of,NSA,employees,stationed,around,the,globe,are,dedicated,to,tracking,phones,in,real,time,By,September,2004,a,new,NSA,technique,enabled,the,agency,to,find,cellphones,even,when,they,were,turned,off,JSOC,troops,called,this,The,Find,and,it,gave,them,thousands,of,new,targets,including,members,of,a,burgeoning,al,Qaeda,sponsored,insurgency,in,Iraq,according,to,members,of,the,unit,At,the,same,time,the,NSA,developed,a,new,computer,linkup,called,the,Real,Time,Regional,Gateway,into,which,the,military,and,intelligence,officers,could,feed,every,bit,of,data,or,seized,documents,and,get,back,a,phone,number,or,list,of,potential,targets,It,also,allowed,commanders,to,see,on,a,screen,every,type,of,surveillance,available,in,a,given,territory,The,technique,by,which,the,NSA,can,wiretap,cellphones,even,when,they,are,turned,off,and,powered,down,is,most,likely,being,performed,with,the,complicity,of,telecommunications,companies,who,have,proven,friendly,to,NSA,snooping,Trojan,horse,programs,disguised,behind,routine,system,updates,are,the,likely,method,through,which,the,NSA,gains,direct,access,to,millions,of,Americans,cellphones,and,other,devices,you,may,recall,the,fact,that,Verizon,and,ATT,notably,did,not,sign,the,collective,letter,asking,the,government,to,allow,affected,companies,to,release,information,on,government,requests,for,data,writes,Tim,Cushing,given,this,background,its,not,unimaginable,that,Verizon,and,ATT,would,accommodate,the,NSA,and,FBI,if,it,wished,to,use,their,update,systems,to,push,these,trojans,as,we,have,also,previously,highlighted,terms,of,agreement,for,many,of,the,apps,you,download,to,your,smartphone,now,use,your,microphone,to,listen,to,you,and,your,camera,to,take,pictures,of,you,without,your,knowledge,the,notion,of,the,federal,government,tracking,your,location,via,your,cellphone,is,particularly,prescient,given,yesterdays,report,concerning,the,DHS,funded,mesh,network,system,that,seattle,police,eventually,intend,to,roll,out,across,the,city,but,have,temporarily,been,forced,to,deactivate,due,to,a,privacy,outcry,aruba,networks,company,behind,the,system,of,wifi,hubs,which,can,record,the,last,1000,locations,of,cellphones,belonging,to,anyone,in,the,coverage,area,bragged,in,their,promotional,material,that,the,grid,could,track,rogue,or,unassociated,devices,In,other,words,even,if,you,do,not,allow,your,phone,to,connect,to,such,wifi,networks,they,can,still,access,your,device,record,its,current,and,historical,location,as,well,as,download,private,information,from,your,apps,and,other,settings,And,there,appeared,a,great,wonder,in,heaven;,a,woman,clothed,with,the,sun,and,the,moon,under,her,feet,and,upon,her,head,a,crown,of,twelve,stars:,And,she,being,with,child,cried,travailing,in,birth,and,pained,to,be,delivered,And,there,appeared,another,wonder,in,heaven;,and,behold,a,great,red,dragon,having,seven,heads,and,ten,horns,and,seven,crowns,upon,his,heads.,And,his,tail,drew,the,third,part,of,the,stars,of,heaven,and,did,cast,them,to,the,earth:,and,the,dragon,stood,before,the,woman,which,was,ready,to,be,delivered,for,to,devour,her,child,as,soon,as,it,was,born.,And,she,brought,forth,a,man,child,who,was,to,rule,all,nations,with,a,rod,of,iron:,and,her,child,was,caught,up,unto,God,and,to,his,throne.,And,the,woman,fled,into,the,wilderness,where,she,hath,a,place,prepared,of,God,that,they,should,feed,her,there,a,thousand,two,hundred,and,threescore,days.,And,there,was,war,in,heaven:,Michael,and,his,angels,fought,against,the,dragon;,and,the,dragon,fought,and,his,angels,And,prevailed,not,neither,was,their,place,found,any,more,in,heaven,And,the,great,dragon,was,cast,out,that,old,serpent,called,the,Devil,and,Satan,which,deceiveth,the,whole,world:,he,was,cast,out,into,the,earth,and,his,angels,were,cast,out,with,him.,And,I,heard,a,loud,voice,saying,in,heaven,Now,is,come,salvation,and,strength,and,the,kingdom,of,our,God,and,the,power,of,his,Christ,for,the,accuser,of,our,brethren,is,cast,down,which,accused,them,before,our,God,day,and,night,And,they,overcame,him,by,the,blood,of,the,Lamb,and,by,the,word,of,their,testimony;,and,they,loved,not,their,lives,unto,the,death,Therefore,rejoice,ye,heavens,and,ye,that,dwell,in,them.,Woe,to,the,inhabiters,of,the,earth,and,of,the,sea!,for,the,devil,is,come,down,unto,you,having,great,wrath,because,he,knoweth,that,he,hath,but,a,short,time.,And,when,the,dragon,saw,that,he,was,cast,unto,the,earth,he,persecuted,the,woman,which,brought,forth,the,man,child,And,to,the,woman,were,given,two,wings,of,a,great,eagle,that,she,might,fly,into,the,wilderness,into,her,place,where,she,is,nourished,for,a,time,and,times,and,half,a,time,from,the,face,of,the,serpent,And,the,serpent,cast,out,of,his,mouth,water,as,a,flood,after,the,woman,that,he,might,cause,her,to,be,carried,away,of,the,flood.,And,the,earth,helped,the,woman,and,the,earth,opened,her,mouth,and,swallowed,up,the,flood,which,the,dragon,cast,out,of,his,mouth,And,the,dragon,was,wroth,with,the,woman,and,went,to,make,war,with,the,remnant,of,her,seed,which,keep,the,commandments,of,God,and,have,the,testimony,of,Jesus,Christ,Charles,Rowe,Jacqueline,Kennedy,Esther,Rowe,Ralph,Rowe,Judy,Garland,Ethel,Kennedy,Robert,John,Kennedy,international,affairs,world,economic,domination,and,control,policy,makers,decisions,for,material,gain,persuasion,of,the,masses,Did,you,know,that,the,NSA,can,track,the,location,of,your,phone,even,when,it,is,turned,off,and,the,batteries,have,been,removed,This,admission,went,largely,unnoticed,in,a,Washington,Post,report,entitled,NSA,growth,fueled,by,need,to,target,terrorists,In,the,article,writer,Dana,Priest,details,how,teams,of,NSA,employees,stationed,around,the,globe,are,dedicated,to,tracking,phones,in,real,time,By,September,2004,a,new,NSA,technique,enabled,the,agency,to,find,cellphones,even,when,they,were,turned,off,JSOC,troops,called,this,The,Find,and,it,gave,them,thousands,of,new,targets,including,members,of,a,burgeoning,al,Qaeda,sponsored,insurgency,in,Iraq,according,to,members,of,the,unit,At,the,same,time,the,NSA,developed,a,new,computer,linkup,called,the,Real,Time,Regional,Gateway,into,which,the,military,and,intelligence,officers,could,feed,every,bit,of,data,or,seized,documents,and,get,back,a,phone,number,or,list,of,potential,targets,It,also,allowed,commanders,to,see,on,a,screen,every,type,of,surveillance,available,in,a,given,territory,The,technique,by,which,the,NSA,can,wiretap,cellphones,even,when,they,are,turned,off,and,powered,down,is,most,likely,being,performed,with,the,complicity,of,telecommunications,companies,who,have,proven,friendly,to,NSA,snooping,Trojan,horse,programs,disguised,behind,routine,system,updates,are,the,likely,method,through,which,the,NSA,gains,direct,access,to,millions,of,Americans,cellphones,and,other,devices,you,may,recall,the,fact,that,Verizon,and,ATT,notably,did,not,sign,the,collective,letter,asking,the,government,to,allow,affected,companies,to,release,information,on,government,requests,for,data,writes,Tim,Cushing,given,this,background,its,not,unimaginable,that,Verizon,and,ATT,would,accommodate,the,NSA,and,FBI,if,it,wished,to,use,their,update,systems,to,push,these,trojans,as,we,have,also,previously,highlighted,terms,of,agreement,for,many,of,the,apps,you,download,to,your,smartphone,now,use,your,microphone,to,listen,to,you,and,your,camera,to,take,pictures,of,you,without,your,knowledge,the,notion,of,the,federal,government,tracking,your,location,via,your,cellphone,is,particularly,prescient,given,yesterdays,report,concerning,the,DHS,funded,mesh,network,system,that,seattle,police,eventually,intend,to,roll,out,across,the,city,but,have,temporarily,been,forced,to,deactivate,due,to,a,privacy,outcry,aruba,networks,company,behind,the,system,of,wifi,hubs,which,can,record,the,last,1000,locations,of,cellphones,belonging,to,anyone,in,the,coverage,area,bragged,in,their,promotional,material,that,the,grid,could,track,rogue,or,unassociated,devices,In,other,words,even,if,you,do,not,allow,your,phone,to,connect,to,such,wifi,networks,they,can,still,access,your,device,record,its,current,and,historical,location,as,well,as,download,private,information,from,your,apps,and,other,settings,The,Future,of,Eugenics,Eugenics,although,based,on,the,science,of,genetics,is,not,itself,a,sciences,for,it,must,above,all,concern,itself,with,social,values,with,the,question:,Whither,mankind?,Perhaps,general,Agreement,could,be,had,that,freedom,from,gross,physical,or,mental,defects,and,the,the,freedom,from,gross,physical,or,mental,defects,and,the,possession,of,sound,health,high,intelligence,general,adaptability,and,mobility,of,sprier,are,the,major,goals,toward,which,eugenics,should,aim;,perhaps,even,that,diversity,of,nature,is,better,than,uniformity,of,type,But,hour,far,ought,selective,reproduction,to,inters,with,human,freedoms:,Genetically,as,in,other,respects,"there,is,so,much,bad,in,the,best,of,us,and,so,much,good,in,the,worst,of,us",that,it,is,hared,to,asses,the,worth,of,the,manifest,hereditary,characteristics,of,a,person;,and,the,numerous,hidden,recessive,genes,or,genes,of,low,penetrance,make,it,quit,impossible,Nor,can,on,determine,to,what,extent,a,person's,manifest,characteristics,a,the,product,of,environment,particularly,for,this,qualities,what,eugenics',major,concern:,con,health,high,intelligence,and,the,like,THe,Jukes,and,Kallikaks,were,horrible,examples,of,degenerate,humanity,but,what,might,they,have,been,in,a,better,world:,Were,their,alcoholism,their,crime,and,their,vice,inescapable,products,of,their,genes?,It,seems,very,doubtful,Only,the,experiment,of,putting,them,from,earliest,infancy,in,to,an,optimum,environment,could,possible,yield,and,answer,It,is,easier,to,define,the,essentials,of,a,optimum,environment,not,forgetting,that,it,need,not,be,the,same,for,everyone,than,to,modify,gene,frequencies,by,wise,selection,Once,mankind,has,produced,an,approximation,of,that,optimum,environment,the,eugenic,task,will,be,simpler,In,fact,that,natural,selection,exerted,by,such,an,environment,may,make,eugenics,quite,unnecessary,See,also,Birth,Control,Genetics,Mark,Rowe,David,Rowe,Nina,Dougherty,Clifford,Dougherty,Anita,Ferguson,Virginia,Ferguson,William,Jones,Frederick,Jones,Charles,Rowe,Jacqueline,Kennedy,Esther,Rowe,Ralph,Rowe,Judy,Garland,Ethel,Kennedy,Robert,John,Kennedy,international,affairs,world,economic,domination,and,control,policy,makers,decisions,for,material,gain,persuasion,of,the,masses,Did,you,know,that,the,NSA,can,track,the,location,of,your,phone,even,when,it,is,turned,off,and,the,batteries,have,been,removed,This,admission,went,largely,unnoticed,in,a,Washington,Post,report,entitled,NSA,growth,fueled,by,need,to,target,terrorists,In,the,article,writer,Dana,Priest,details,how,teams,of,NSA,employees,stationed,around,the,globe,are,dedicated,to,tracking,phones,in,real,time,By,September,2004,a,new,NSA,technique,enabled,the,agency,to,find,cellphones,even,when,they,were,turned,off,JSOC,troops,called,this,The,Find,and,it,gave,them,thousands,of,new,targets,including,members,of,a,burgeoning,al,Qaeda,sponsored,insurgency,in,Iraq,according,to,members,of,the,unit,At,the,same,time,the,NSA,developed,a,new,computer,linkup,called,the,Real,Time,Regional,Gateway,into,which,the,military,and,intelligence,officers,could,feed,every,bit,of,data,or,seized,documents,and,get,back,a,phone,number,or,list,of,potential,targets,It,also,allowed,commanders,to,see,on,a,screen,every,type,of,surveillance,available,in,a,given,territory,The,technique,by,which,the,NSA,can,wiretap,cellphones,even,when,they,are,turned,off,and,powered,down,is,most,likely,being,performed,with,the,complicity,of,telecommunications,companies,who,have,proven,friendly,to,NSA,snooping,Trojan,horse,programs,disguised,behind,routine,system,updates,are,the,likely,method,through,which,the,NSA,gains,direct,access,to,millions,of,Americans,cellphones,and,other,devices,you,may,recall,the,fact,that,Verizon,and,ATT,notably,did,not,sign,the,collective,letter,asking,the,government,to,allow,affected,companies,to,release,information,on,government,requests,for,data,writes,Tim,Cushing,given,this,background,its,not,unimaginable,that,Verizon,and,ATT,would,accommodate,the,NSA,and,FBI,if,it,wished,to,use,their,update,systems,to,push,these,trojans,as,we,have,also,previously,highlighted,terms,of,agreement,for,many,of,the,apps,you,download,to,your,smartphone,now,use,your,microphone,to,listen,to,you,and,your,camera,to,take,pictures,of,you,without,your,knowledge,the,notion,of,the,federal,government,tracking,your,location,via,your,cellphone,is,particularly,prescient,given,yesterdays,report,concerning,the,DHS,funded,mesh,network,system,that,seattle,police,eventually,intend,to,roll,out,across,the,city,but,have,temporarily,been,forced,to,deactivate,due,to,a,privacy,outcry,aruba,networks,company,behind,the,system,of,wifi,hubs,which,can,record,the,last,1000,locations,of,cellphones,belonging,to,anyone,in,the,coverage,area,bragged,in,their,promotional,material,that,the,grid,could,track,rogue,or,unassociated,devices,In,other,words,even,if,you,do,not,allow,your,phone,to,connect,to,such,wifi,networks,they,can,still,access,your,device,record,its,current,and,historical,location,as,well,as,download,private,information,from,your,apps,,and,other,settings,washington,the,white,house,has,cancelled,a,planned,summit,meeting,next,month,between,president,barack,obama,and,russian,president,vladimir,putin,and,one,of,the,reasons,given,was,moscows,decision,to,grant,asylum,to,an,american,who,leaked,top,secret,information,Former,Vice,President,Dick,Cheney,called,Edward,Snowden,a,traitor,for,leaking,top,secret,documents,from,the,National,Security,Agency,in,an,interview,that,aired,Monday,afternoon,on,CNN,Cheney,added,that,he,hopes,the,U,S,is,eventually,able,to,catch,Snowden,who,was,granted,a,one,year,asylum,in,Russia,in,August,and,hopes,he,receives,the,justice,he,deserves,Cheney,said,Snowden,leaks,which,most,recently,revealed,that,the,National,Security,Agency,monitored,the,phone,conversations,of,35,world,leaders,have,hurt,Americas,ability,to,defend,itself,The,former,second,in,command,would,not,comment,on,whether,or,not,that,the,surveillance,began,in,2002,as,the,documents,indicated,The,fact,is,we,do,collect,a,lot,of,intelligence,without,speaking,about,any,particular,target,or,group,of,targets,Cheney,told,CNN,Jake,Tapper,That,intelligence,capability,is,enormously,important,to,the,United,States,to,our,conduct,of,foreign,policy,to,the,defense,matters,to,economic,matters,And,Im,a,strong,supporter,of,it,The,same,day,Cheney,came,out,against,Snowden,Wikileaks,set,up,a,Free,Snowden,a,website,designed,to,collect,money,to,defend,the,former,NSA,contractor,whose,asylum,ends,in,August,2014,Damascus,knows,the,struggle,for,the,moment,is,to,sway,American,public,opinion,With,that,in,mind,President,Assad,In,his,interview,with,CBS,and,statements,from,other,Syrian,officials,,have,stressed,at,least,three,ways,in,which,a,US,military,strike,would,backfire,There,is,the,unspecific,warning,if,not,outright,threat,of,direct,reprisals,by,Syria,,and,indirect,action,by,its,allies,such,as,Hezbollah,in,Lebanon,and,Iranian,backed,Shia,militias,in,Iraq,There,is,the,warning,that,American,action,would,strengthen,rebel,factions,linked,to,al,Qaeda,and,could,even,enable,them,to,seize,power,if,the,strike,were,damaging,enough,And,there,is,the,threat,echoed,by,Moscow,that,any,such,attack,would,scupper,already,dim,chances,of,a,political,settlement,through,peace,talks,in,Geneva,In,reality,much,depends,on,what,exactly,the,Americans,intend,to,do,If,their,strike,is,as,Mr,Kerry,said,incredibly,small,the,repercussions,might,be,very,limited,Iranian,backed,militias,in,Iraq,might,fire,off,some,mortars,at,the,enormous,US,embassy,compound,in,Baghdad,for,example,But,more,serious,actions,such,as,Hezbollah,striking,at,Israel,are,unlikely,unless,the,US,launches,a,very,major,operation,indeed,Russia,has,asked,Syria,to,put,its,chemical,weapons,stockpiles,under,international,control,and,then,have,them,destroyed,in,an,attempt,to,avoid,US,military,strikes,Foreign,Minister,Sergei,Lavrov,said,the,offer,was,made,during,talks,with,his,Syrian,counterpart,Walid,Muallem,who,welcomed,the,initiative,The,US,said,it,was,skeptical,but,would,have,a,hard,look,at,the,plan,The,US,accuses,Damascus,of,war,crimes,allegations,denied,by,the,regime,US,Secretary,of,State,John,Kerry,in,Europe,to,garner,support,for,the,military,action,,inadvertently,started,the,talk,of,Syria,giving,up,its,chemical,weapons,early,on,Monday,When,asked,at,a,news,conference,whether,there,was,anything,Syrian,President,Bashar,al,Assad,could,do,to,avoid,military,action,Mr,Kerry,replied,that,he,could,hand,over,his,entire,stockpile,of,chemical,weapons,within,the,next,week,US,officials,subsequently,clarified,that,Mr,Kerry,was,making,a,rhetorical,argument,rather,than,a,serious,offer,However,Mr,Lavrov,later,revealed,in,a,news,conference,that,he,had,urged,Mr,Muallem,to,not,only,agree,on,placing,chemical,weapons,storage,sites,under,international,control,,but,also,on,their,subsequent,destruction,He,said,he,had,also,told,Mr,Muallem,that,Syria,should,then,fully,join,the,Chemical,Weapons,Convention,Mr,Muallem,told,reporters,through,an,interpreter,that,Syria,welcomed,the,initiative,and,praised,Russia,for,attempting,to,prevent,American,aggression,against,our,people,Mr,Kerry,and,Mr,Lavrov,spoke,on,the,phone,after,the,Russian,proposal,was,put,forward,but,US,officials,sounded,a,cautious,note,over,the,plan,White,House,spokesman,Jay,Carney,said,the,US,government,would,study,the,proposal,but,had,skepticism,over,the,credibility,of,the,Assad,regime,In,an,interview,earlier,Assad,refused,to,even,acknowledge,that,he,has,chemical,weapons,Of,course,the,whole,world,knows,he,does,said,Mr,Carney,White,House,spokesman,Jay,Carney,said,the,US,would,study,Russia's,proposals,He,promised,that,the,US,would,continue,to,push,for,strikes,because,the,credible,threat,of,military,action,was,vital,in,putting,pressure,on,the,Assad,regime,US,allies,have,also,reacted,cautiously,UK,Minister,David,Cameron,said,the,destruction,of,the,weapons,would,be,a,huge,step,forward,but,warned,that,it,should,not,be,used,as,a,distraction,tactic,French,Foreign,Minister,Laurent,Fabius,called,on,Mr,Assad,to,make,rapid,serious,and,verifiable,comments,to,the,plan,German,Chancellor,Angela,Merkel,said,it,was,an,interesting,proposal,but,added,that,she,hoped,real,action,would,follow,Pay,the,price,Moscow,has,been,Mr,Assad's,main,international,ally,throughout,Syria's,two,and,a,half,year,civil,war,Russia,has,blocked,three,resolutions,against,Syria,in,the,UN,Security,Council,and,has,dismissed,US,claims,that,Mr,Assad's,forces,carried,out,a,chemical,attack,in,Damascus,on,August,killing,people,Mr,Assad's,government,blames,the,attack,on,rebels,fighting,to,overthrow,him,in,a,conflict,that,the,UN,says,has,claimed,some,lives,The,UN,sent,weapons,experts,into,Damascus,to,investigate,the,attack,UN,Secretary,General,Ban,Ki,moon,said,on,Monday,that,if,the,experts,concluded,chemicals,had,been,used,,he,would,consider,asking,the,Security,Council,to,approve,a,safe,zone,in,Syria,where,the,weapons,could,be,destroyed,Meanwhile,the,Syrian,leader,gave,an,interview,to,US,network,PBS,in,which,he,warned,the,US,against,intervention,saying,the,Middle,East,was,on,the,brink,of,explosion,You're,going,to,pay,the,price,if,you're,not,wise,with,dealing,with,terrorists,There,are,going,to,be,repercussions,he,said,The,government,is,not,the,only,player,in,this,region,You,have,different,parties,different,factions,different,ideologies,You,have,everything,in,this,decision,now,Mr,Assad,did,not,explain,whether,his,comment,was,a,threat,that,Syrian,backed,groups,such,as,Hezbollah,would,launch,retaliation,or,a,warning,that,strikes,would,bolster,al,Qaeda,linked,groups,He,also,denied,using,chemical,weapons,saying,there,was,no,evidence,to,hold,his,government,responsible,for,the,August,attack,Continue,reading,the,main,story,Start,Quote,The,proposal,to,destroy,Syria's,chemical,weapons,could,be,a,one,day,wonder,but,it,could,also,be,a,game,changer,Mark,Mardell,North,America,Heavy,lift,US,President,Barack,Obama,has,cleared,his,schedule,this,week,to,focus,all,his,attention,on,building,support,for,the,Syrian,intervention,He,has,acknowledged,he,faces,a,heavy,lift,to,win,congressional,backing,A,poll,carried,out,by,ABC,and,the,BBC,on,Friday,suggested,more,than,members,in,the,House,of,Representatives,were,either,opposed,or,likely,to,oppose,strikes,Just,representatives,said,they,would,support,or,were,likely,to,support,action,and,a,large,proportion,are,still,undecided,on,the,issue,Many,US,politicians,and,members,of,the,public,remain,concerned,that,military,action,could,draw,the,nation,into,a,prolonged,war,and,spark,broader,hostilities,in,the,region,of,the44,21,230,433,100000,1429,21